Bridging the Gap Between Social Presence and Telepresence

Bridging the Gap Between Social Presence and Telepresence: Toward a Model of Social Telepresence

Steuer’s (1992) model of telepresence presents a framework capturing the degree to which simultaneous physical and mediated environments interrelate while recognizing that both humans and hardware contribute to the process. The current investigation extends Steuer’s work by testing his model empirically, comparing the telepresence of two two-way interactive distance learning networks. A total of 260 high school students in either one of two distance learning networks class returned anonymous mail questionnaires. Results indicate that the network architecture supporting greater “awareness” and ability to “see through” the network between students and across locations received a more positive telepresence evaluation. Implications and future research are discussed.

The pace and pervasiveness of converging technologies in modern U.S. elementary and high school classrooms are unprecedented (Oskamp & Spacapan, 1990). Rogers’ (1986) predicted that “(i)n no other area of daily life is the potential of the new communication technologies such a powerful impact as with children both at home and school” (p. 233). His point is not idle conjecture. We are more than a decade past Rogers’ prediction and increasingly witness its impact. Distance learning is at the forefront of the multimedia being introduced and promoted by telecommunications and cable (Holmberg, 1986; Holzman & Pehrson, 1995). Distance learning programs are designed to communicate for the purpose of education in situations where teacher and students are not simultaneously sharing a physical geographic location (Holmberg, 1981). Learning is no longer restricted to a place and time, and an increasingly wider variety of primary and secondary distance learning projects (e.g., Learning Network, JASON, & SuperTube) are continually emerging in the United States (Minow & Lamay, 1995).

The number of media channels through which lessons are taught and feedback received have increased dramatically during the past three decades (Leavy & Wallace, 1995; Picciano, 1994). Many distance learning participants today have the ability to communicate with other sites utilizing satellite networks, email, telephone, fax, mail, world wide web, as well as both one- and two-way broadcast (Heldman, 1993; Holmberg, 1977; Meyrowitz, 1985; Shrestha & Sutphin, 1995). Whereas even in the recent past the number of communication channels available tended to favor the sending site, today it is common for the distant learning sites to also use a multitude of channels made available (Barker, Frisbie & Patrick, 1989; Brand, 1988). Study of the impact of these increased channels, as well as increased bandwidth, available for use in education is receiving significant scholarly focus at all levels of education. Studies are available on preschool (Bryant, 1990), primary (Trachtman, Spirek, Sparks & Stohl, 1991), secondary (Charron, 1993; Salvador, 1994), undergraduate (McHenry & Bozik, 1995), graduate (Ross, 1994), and special education classes (Alonso, de Antonio, Fuertes & Montes, 1995). Some recent studies even suggest that as the number of media channels increases, so does the potential for greater interactivity between the teacher and student who participate in a distance learning curriculum (Spirek, Short & Klopfenstein, 1995). But just as the technological means for communication increased, the potential for technological caveats (e.g., inferior or antiquated machinery or software, incompatible standards, lack of beta testing with computer software, etc.) remains a concern (McMahon, Gantz & Greenberg, 1995).

Multiple new technologies have changed distance learning’s model of interaction (Guin, 1994; Rumble, 1986) and its pedagogical approaches (Paulsen, Barros, Busch, Compostela, & Quesnel, 1994). All of these new multimedia distance education experiences share the assumption that the most meaningful comparison is with the educational experience where the teacher and students are face-to-face and do simultaneously share the same geographic location and time (Garrison, 1989; Irons, Jung and Keel 2002). The implications of this multimedia experience are profound, transcending merely the educational context (Chesebro & Bertelsen, 1996; Frenkel, 1995).

Much modern communication research focuses on how various mediums impact or affect human communication. In fact information systems theories as they relate to communication are indebted to the insight and work of Shannon and Weaver (1949) who themselves engaged in the process of developing and refining the communications medium of the telephone. More recently, two related approaches to understanding the impact of technology on communication have served as a basis for significant bodies of research. These two approaches are social presence and media richness.

Social presence theory advanced by Short, Williams and Christie (1972), focuses on qualities of the communications medium itself. It advances two related hypotheses: (1) communications media vary in their degree of social presence, and these variations are important in determining the ways people interact; and (2) users of any given communications medium are in some sense aware of the degree of social presence of the medium and tend to avoid using the medium for certain types of interactions. Short, Williams and Christie further narrow these hypotheses when then say that social presence is not an objective quality of the medium, but a subjective quality (p. 65). This approach characterizes social presence as a single dimension representing a cognitive synthesis of factors perceived by the individual in the medium. These factors include the capacity to transmit information about facial expression, direction of looking, posture, dress and nonverbal vocal cues.(p. X).” Media with a high degree of social presence are judged as being warm, personal, sensitive and social.

The media richness model, as advanced by Daft & Lengel (1986) is influenced by social presence theory. Media richness contends that people are motivated to reduce ambiguity and that different medium provide the opportunity for reducing ambiguity with varying degrees of success. Daft & Lengel describe the model as being a means for resolving “how organizations can be designed to provide information mechanisms to both reduce uncertainty (ambiguity) and resolve equivocality (p.354).” Numerous researchers have taken this media richness model and found it quite useful for understanding media choices made within an organization.

For example, Schmitz and Fulk (1991) explain that “(a)mbiguity reduction is a function of a medium’s richness that is, the capability of (a) facilitating feedback, (b) communicating multiple cues, (c) presenting individually tailored messages, and (d) using natural language to convey subtleties” (p. 488) Valacich, Paranka, George and Nunamaker, Jr. (1993) add to this list the fifth element of environmental concurrency. They define environmental concurrency as representing “the communication capacity of the environment to support distinct communication episodes, without detracting from any other episodes that may be occurring simultaneously between the same or different individuals” (p. X).

The linkage between social presence and media richness is the shared focus on the qualities of the medium itself. Both characterize all communications medium as not only having manifest or objective characteristics, but also subjective characteristics which need to be identified and understood.

A hierarchical continuum of media richness created and tested by both Zmud, Lind & Young (1990), and Whitfield, Lamont & Sambamurthy (1996) determined a media’s richness on this continuum moved from least to most rich: facsimile, electronic mail, computer generated reports, formal group meeting, voice conferencing, telephone and face-to-face communication. For example, electronic mail is evaluated as being less rich than using the telephone because the electronic mail is not synchronous and restricted to typed text whereas the telephone is synchronous and the tone of voice can provide additional information to the literal words being spoken. The media richness model recognizes distinct differences across media channel choices while recognizing the most rich scenario of communication as face-to-face where no mass media are used at all. While useful, two potential problems of media richness are: (1) it may be that this hierarchical continuum of richness is self-imposed by the researchers and not by users; and (2) it has been developed to compare different technologies.

Social presence theory and the media richness model both view face-to-face communication as the standard against which the use of different mediums are compared. A second area where social presence theory and media richness model are similar is that both views seek to explore the communication implications of selecting one medium as compared to another. Different media channels provide different communication situations. What are the ramifications, if any, of selecting one communication medium as compared to another? This is the question both frameworks principally strive to address. But what if you are interested in comparing substantially similar medium? Theoretically, neither social presence nor media richness are helpful on that issue.

Although the media richness model and social presence share multiple common strengths, they also both have limitations in their ability to describe media channel selection. While social presence theory recognizes the importance of the social dimension in understanding and assessing technology, the assumptive approach of social presence theory is about identifying and evaluating the subjective quality of a medium rather than objective qualities. This raises significant questions about the nature of technology.

While we firmly support the need to address the social aspects of technology uses and applications, it is our assumption technology itself is objective relative to its design, and is used for subjective ends. And although media richness recognizes there are various types of tasks (ambiguous v. equivocal), it is used primarily for comparing different media as it allows for reducing uncertainty. But what happens when two configurations of the same media channels demonstrate different features? Two facsimile machines will rate equally across the features but yet a decision to buy and use one rather than the other is made. Additionally, the nature of many educational contexts requires addressing directly both conditions of ambiguity and equivocality. This is the scenario that educational institutions are currently facing across the United States. Schools have to select between using several rich multi-channel environments. Media richness and social presence are not directly assisting those faced with this dilemma. A model is needed where technology and applications are suited to the user needs and not vice versa. And it needs to be a bottom-up rather than a top-down model.

For these reasons we focus on an alternative model. We follow Steuer (1992) who articulated a useful model for comparing and evaluating distant communication exchanges with face-to-face or co-present communication exchanges. He refers to this model as telepresence. Telepresence is defined by Steuer “as the extent to which one feels present in the mediated environment, rather than in the immediate physical environment” (p. 75).

While hardware and software are important in the mediation, telepresence is ultimately about the perceived experiences of the user. Telepresence has two dimensions for Steuer, interactivity and vividness. Interactivity is “the degree to which users of a medium can influence the form or content of the mediated environment,” and vividness is “the ability of a technology to produce a sensorially rich mediated environment (p. 80). Each of these factors is conceptually described with technological variables that in combination create the human experience of telepresence.

Telepresence is analyzed in reference to the relative success in simulating co-presence. This model is a user centered approach allowing for both comparison of user perceptions of similar medium, and a recognition of the importance of both objective characteristics of the mediums and the subjective needs of the user.

Two technological factors contributing to vividness are sensory breadth and sensory depth. Sensory breadth is the number of senses activated by the media experience. Sensory depth is the resolution of the stimuli activating each sensory channel. “Informationally, depth depends directly upon the amount of data encoded and the data bandwidth of the transmission channel (Steuer, 1992, p. 83).” High vivideness enhances the visibility of one or more persons to others across time and space, providing the basis for a mutual awareness of their respective activities (Dourish 2001).

In addition to vividness, the dimension of interactivity also serves as a determinant. Interactivity is described with three contributory factors: “speed, which refers to the rate at which input can be assimilated into the mediated environment; range, which refers to the number of possibilities for action at any given time; and mapping which refers to the ability of a system to map its controls to changes in the mediated environment in a natural and predictable manner (Steuer, 1992, pp. 85‑86).” Information is not simply transmitted from sender to receiver; rather mediated environments are created and then experienced. Thus, interactivity is also concerned with the visibility of the effect of a system in modulating activities, and visibility of the “system’s behavior in response to some user activity” (Dourish 2001 p. 165).

This study specifically builds on Steuer’s call to test his framework empirically by comparing the telepresence of two distance learning systems: (1) analog video over fiber and (2) digital video over frame relay.[1] By Steuer's typology, the fiber network system studied is lower in interactivity and higher on vividness as compared to the digital network. Because of the differences in the technological and human experiences, the two implementations of telepresence also provide different learning experiences. We compare these two distance learning video networks by observing and surveying a sample of students from high schools in the state of Missouri attending classes served by the two networks.

The Interactive Video Programming Task Force was created by the Missouri Public Service Commission on November 5, 1991. One of the Task Force’s objectives was to develop a two-way interactive video for distance education by developing a pilot program for use by several Missouri high schools. The digital digital and the fiber analog networks were integrated into the classrooms for the 1994‑1995 school year. This pilot program was therefore able to provide a unique opportunity to simultaneously test two two-way interactive systems that varied in both their vividness and interactivity. Although a number of studies have investigated the effectiveness of single distance learning networks, the Missouri exploration provided the means for conducting an communication investigation with a field experiment where two network systems could be compared with a single population.

The analog fiber network provided the highest quality audio and video signal available with a maximum of 16 channels of high quality National Television Standards Committee video (The Interactive Video, 1992, p. 3). In the fiber network a total of five possible combination of views of the learning situation could be used to facilitate interaction. These five views of the learning situation are defined by the manner in which host and remote sites are able to share a common media. The fiber class provided a dedicated television monitor for each remote location so each class was presented on single television monitors. Yet, the monitor for the host site was used in five ways: to present graphic resources, VCR tapes, computer displays, the teacher, or the host class. The first three views of the learning situation were used when teachers presented support materials such as video and graphics. In such circumstances the remote classes were not able to view the host class or the teacher.

In contrast, the digital network made simultaneous viewing available on a compressed video system (The Interactive Video, 1992, p. 6). In the digital network there are seven possible views of the learning situation that the teacher can use to facilitate interaction. These views of the learning situation are defined by the manner in which host and remote sites are able to share a common video space about the situation and the multimedia resources used in that process. The digital network class is designed around a quad split 52 inch television monitor, combined with reciprocity monitors for the teacher (positioned at the back of the room) and host class (monitor at front of the room) These television monitors are able to make a range of views of the learning situation available to the remote classes. Specifically seven interactive viewing options are made available: graphic resources, VCR tapes, computer displays, the teacher, the host class, one remote class at a time, and three remote classes at a time. The options of viewing one remote class at a time and three remote classes at a time are two additional viewing options not offered with the fiber analog network system.

As noted earlier, face-to-face, co-present learning is the standard to which a distance education telepresence is typically compared. For this reason, students utilizing each of the two-way broadcast networks were asked to compare their previous distance education classroom experiences to their face-to-face classroom experiences for this study. Given the technical features of each system, the fiber system was expected to be evaluated as more vivid whereas the digital system was expected to be evaluated as more interactive when the two systems were compared using the face-to-face standard. In other words, we expect the students using the fiber network to more readily “see through” the networks with an increased awareness of the activities in the other locations (Dourish 2001).

Past research provides the justification of two directed hypotheses for testing the two networks according to Steuer’s conceptualization of the terms vividness and interactivity. This is not the case for comparing the telepresence of the digital and fiber analog network. Because of the exploratory nature of comparing student assessment of the overall classroom telepresence, a research question is proposed for the final analyses. In summary, the current investigation applies Steuer’s model of telepresence by comparing the vividness and interactivity of two two-way interactive distance learning network systems. Based upon the literature review, two hypotheses and one research question are advanced.

H1: Students in the fiber analog classrooms will rate their fiber analog classes as more vivid when compared to students in the digital classrooms.

H2: Students in the digital network classrooms will rate their classes as more interactive when compared to students in the fiber analog classrooms.

RQ1: Does the digital or the fiber analog network system provide high school students with a more positive telepresence experience?

Three clusters of school districts in rural Missouri participated in this interactive video field experiment. The three groups included one from northeast Missouri, one from central Missouri and one from west central Missouri. Five districts comprised the northeast group, five comprised the central group and four comprised the west central group. A number of factors such as copper or fiber availability and interconnection costs were considered by the Interactive Video Programming Task Force before they assigned the delivery technology of either the fiber analog or the digital system. These two systems comprise the independent variable for this study and provide the basis for grouping the two samples. Northeast Missouri was provided with an analog fiber system whereas central and west central Missouri were provided with the digital system.

All Missouri high school students enrolled in a two-way broadcast distance learning class during the 1994‑1995 school year were provided a mail questionnaire (N = 482). A total of 260 anonymous questionnaires were returned within two weeks of the stated deadline. The response rate of this anonymous questionnaire therefore was approximately 54% which both Moser (1972) and Alreck and Settle (1995) report as being a more than adequate response rate for mail questionnaires. A total of 158 of the 388 students in the Frame relayed classes returned questionnaires (65 males and 93 females) and a total of 86 of the 110 students in the fiber analog classes returned questionnaires (27 males and 59 females).

Classroom technology. Three cameras were placed in each classroom. One camera was aimed at the teacher, one on the students and one was focused on static visual aids the teacher utilized (e.g. photographs and transparencies). Monitors were also placed in the classrooms. The monitors made it possible for students to view all other remote students enrolled in the class. Monitors also made it possible for the teachers to view the static visual aids as the students viewed them. Additionally, monitors were also placed in the principals’ offices to allow for local monitoring of classes.

Questionnaires. Questionnaires were used to gather the data in order to measure the dependent variables of vividness, interactivity and telepresence. The student questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section consisted of 18 close-ended questions. These close-ended items asked students to compare their interactive video class to their previous experiences with face-to-face classes. The 18 items asked students to indicate their agreement on seven point Likert scales that ranged from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (7). Two items were not included in the statistical analyses because they lacked face validity. Students therefore answered four questions about the network’s vividness, five about its interactivity and seven about the overall telepresence. The close-ended questions were randomly ordered.

The second section consisted of a single open-ended question. The question read “Comments” and provided lines for the students to write on.

Mail questionnaires were distributed to all high school students. The student was then asked to mail the questionnaire to the investigators in an individually self-addressed stamped envelope.

Vividness. One-tailed t-tests were calculated for the four Likert scale close-ended questions that asked the students to evaluate the vividness of either their fiber analog or digital distance learning class. Vividness refers to the ability of a technology to produce a sensorially rich mediated environment. A statistically significant difference in the predicted direction was found for one of the four vividness items.

Statistically significant differences emerged for the item, “(a)s a student at a remote site of the fiber analog class, I was able to consistently get the teacher’s attention by raising my hand.” Because only students at remote classes were asked to answer this question, a total of 111 students with the Frame relay and a total 38 students with the fiber analog network responded. Students in the fiber analog class (M = 2.92, SD = 2.92) were more likely to agree with the statement than the students in the digital class (M = 3.97, SD = 2.00). This difference was in the hypothesized direction [t(147) = 2.87, p = .002] as shown in Table 1.

No significant difference emerged for the item “(t)he teacher’s use of the pad camera (for graphic display) enhanced my learning experience in the I‑TV class.” Only students whose teachers utilized the pad were requested to answer the question which resulted in 140 digital students and 72 analog fiber students participating. Table 1 shows the acceptance of the null hypothesis for this item [t(210) = 1.03, p = 1.52].

A statistically significant difference also emerged for “(t)he teacher’s use of the VCR enhanced my learning experience in the I‑TV class,” but this finding was not in the predicted direction as shown in Table 1. Again, because the teacher’s use of the VCR varied, the sample size also varied with 131 digital students and 59 fiber analog students answering this question [t(188) = ‑1.81, p = .035]. digital students agreed more strongly with this statement (M = 2.86, SD = 1.59) as compared to the fiber analog students (M = 3.32, SD = 1.75).

No statistically significant difference emerged with the item “(t)he teacher’s use of the computer enhanced my learning experience in the I‑TV class” [t(52) = ‑1.40, p = .083]. Table 1 shows that only students whose teachers utilized this presentation option answered this question (N = 54).

Note. Evaluations made on 7‑point scales (1 = strongly agree, 7 = strongly disagree).

Interactivity. One‑tailed t‑tests were calculated for the five Likert scale close-ended questions that assessed the fiber analog and digital distance learning class’ interactivity as perceived by the participating high school students. Interactivity refers to the degree to which users of a medium can influence the form or content of the mediated environment. Table 2 shows that a statistically significant difference emerged with three of the five items but none of these were in the predicted direction.

Contrary to the hypothesis, the fiber analog classes (M = 3.64, SD = 1.87) were more likely than the digital classes (M = 4.71, SD = 1.61) to agree with the statement, “(a)ccess to the teacher was increased by I‑TV” (see Table 2). This difference was statistically significant [t(242) = 4.67, p = .000].

A statistically significant difference emerged with the item “(a)ccess to the I‑TV class is more convenient than access to the same class would have been otherwise.” This difference was not in the predicted direction [t(242) = 2.08, p = .038]. Students in the fiber analog classes (M = 3.44, SD = 1.79) were more likely to agree with the statement than were the students in the digital classes (M = 3.92, SD = 1.69). These results are shown in Table 2.

Two interactivity close-ended Likert questions did not result in statistically significant differences between the students in the digital and fiber analog classes (see Table 2). These are “I felt more involved in taking an active part in the I‑TV class than in a traditional face-to-face class” [t(242) = 1.04, p = .149], and “(i)t was easier to communicate to the teacher as I became accustomed to the I‑TV class.” [t(242) = .87, p = .201]

Note. Evaluations made on 7‑point scales (1 = strongly agree, 7 = strongly disagree).

Telepresence. Two-tailed t-tests were computed for each of the seven Likert scale close-ended questions that were used to test the telepresence research question advanced. Telepresence is the experience of presence in an environment by means of a communication medium. A statistically significant difference emerged with four of the seven statements as shown in Table 3.

A statistically significant difference emerged with the item “(t)aking an I‑TV class is more boring than a traditional, face-to-face class” [t(242) = -3.43, p = .000]. The students in the fiber analog classes (M = 5.79, SD = 1.59) were more likely to disagree with the sentence as compared to the students in the digital classes (M = 4.99, SD = 1.83) (see Table 3).

A statistically significant difference also emerged with the item “I would not choose to take another I‑TV class” [t(242) = -2.73, p = .007] (see Table 3). The students in the fiber analog classrooms (M = 5.90, SD = 1.56) were more likely to disagree with the statement as compared to the students in the digital classrooms (M = 5.23, SD = 1.93).

The item “I learned a great deal more because of my participation in an I‑TV classroom” did not result in a statistically significant difference [t(242) = 1.90, p = .058] between the two groups of students. As shown in Table 3, no statistically significant difference emerged with two other statements as well. Neither “(t)he quality of my education was increased from attending I‑TV classes” [t(242) = 1.11, p = .269] nor “I would recommend any I‑TV class to other students” [t(242) = 1.90, p = .059] were significant.

A statistically significant difference emerged with “I would recommend the I‑TV class(es) I am currently taking to other students” [t(242) = 2.62, p = .009]. The students in the fiber analog classes (M = 2.41, SD = 1.63) were more likely than the students in the digital classes (M = 3.06, SD = 1.99) to agree with the statement (see Table 3).

The sample size dropped for the final close-ended telepresence question, “(c)ompared to traditional classes, the I‑TV class(es) were important in preparing me for college.” The smaller number of respondents is because only students who planned to attend college were asked to complete this question. A total of 117 students in the Frame relayed classes and 71 students in the fiber analog networked classes answered the question. A statistically significant difference emerged between the two groups [t(186) = 2.60, p = .010] as shown in Table 3. Students in the fiber analog class (M = 2.30, SD = 1.20) were more likely to agree as compared to the students in the digital class (M = 2.94, SD = 1.87).

Note. Evaluations made on 7‑point scales (1 = strongly agree, 7 = strongly disagree).

A total of 98 students (72 digital and 26 analog fiber) listed 151 observations under the open-ended “(c)omments” heading. The questionnaire was designed specifically in an attempt to avoid priming characteristics or aspects of the two systems that the subject would not have otherwise considered. In hindsight, it may have been more appropriate to solicit a somewhat more directed set of responses from participants. As it is, there is a chance that the lack of a directed query resulted in a response bias in the content that is reported here. Participant’s open-ended responses were coded in only one category. However, a participant could comment in each of the six categories, but each referent statement was coded separately. Therefore, it was possible for one participant to comment on a variety of unique categories but each response segment was coded mutually exclusively. The frequency of the statements were coded rather than the frequency of individuals who made statements. This more specific coding unit allowed for greater complexity in recognizing that each participant could make multiple positive and negative statements for interactivity, vividness and overall telepresence.

The responses to this open-ended request for comments were categorized by two independent coders. Scott’s pi was computed for determining the coders’ reliability for the dependent variables across the statements that comprised the sample. Coding reliability was 94.68%.

Each comment item was coded if the content was a topic that referred to Steuer’s (1992) conceptualization of interactivity, vividness or the overall telepresence of the two-way broadcast class. Each coded item was then determined to be either a positive or negative assessment. As shown in Table 4, students made positive and negative comments about the digital and the fiber analog classes.

A pattern emerged with all three dependent variables of interactivity, vividness and telepresence. With both networks, students reported more negative as compared to positive comments about the systems’ vividness and interactivity. In direct contrast the overall telepresence outcome was skewed with a positive as compared to a negative assessment. Chi-square analysis was not conducted on the data because two cells contained less than a count of five statements.

The results of the survey confirmed Steuer’s contention that both human experience and technological elements must be simultaneously examined when describing or evaluating a teleconferencing experience. The two hypotheses and the research question which test Steuer’s telepresence framework assess high school students self-report measures indicating their evaluation of two two-way broadcast learning systems. The application of the model consistently found that the fiber analog system was evaluated as providing a more positive telepresence as compared to the digital system. These findings and the implications of this investigation are discussed below.

This field experiment garnered positive, although limited support for the first hypothesis examining the individual dimension of vividness. Conversely, no support emerged for the second hypothesis in the predicted direction for the two systems with the individual dimension of interactivity. In direct contrast to the lack of findings with the two variables evaluated exclusively, multiple close-ended questions provide evidence in support of the research question focusing upon the more complex concept of telepresence. This is especially worthy of note when remembering that vividness and interactivity are determinants of this concept of telepresence. Comments provided by the students converge with the results of the close-ended data.

Significant differences in the hypothesized direction only emerge with one of the four close-ended vividness questions and with none of the close-ended interactivity questions. The first hypothesis predicts that students in the fiber analog classrooms would more likely rate their fiber analog classes as more vivid compared to the students in the digital classrooms. The second hypothesis predicts that students in the digital classrooms will be more likely to rate their classes as more interactive as compared to the students in the fiber analog classrooms. Here an interesting lack of predicted results emerges. Despite past studies’ findings that indicate interactivity alone is a predictor of perceived quality of multimedia experience, the current study’s findings contradict this. In fact it is these prior investigations that provided the rationale for selecting the two directed hypotheses. This lack of statistically significant findings with vividness alone and interactivity alone emphasizes the need for a more complex model for evaluating mediated experiences. The telepresence framework tested here addresses this need.

The research question advanced queried if the digital or the fiber analog network systems provides high school students with a more positive telepresence experience. A research question was selected because of the exploratory nature of this study’s test of the telepresence concept. Four of the seven close-ended statements confirmed that the fiber analog system provided a more positive I-TV telepresence. It is worthy noting that all four of the items favored the fiber analog classes. The contradictory findings of the telepresence results that simultaneously include human and technology components as compared to the vividness and interactivity results as individual features is an important outcome. These contradictory findings lend credence to the contention that the term telepresence is a unique and valuable framework for assessing distance learning networks studied here. Here the results of the close-ended responses converge with the results of the open-ended responses.

Students in the digital and in the fiber analog classrooms provide more negative comments about the systems’ vividness as compared to positive comments in the open-ended response section of the survey. In a similar vein, students in the digital and in the fiber analog classrooms report more negative comments than positive when commenting upon the systems’ interactivity. Individually then, the human and technology features are evaluated negatively but overall the combined human and technology contribution to the concept of telepresence is overwhelmingly described as positive.

Based upon the investigation’s findings, this study is able to make at least three major contributions to the field of applied communication. First this investigation empirically tested Steuer’s contention that human factors and technological factors need to be considered simultaneously with a model such as that advanced with the telepresence framework. Steuer’s conceptualization of telepresence has proven fruitful and additional studies are needed.

Second, the study documents the potential insights the field of communication can provide industrial, educational and civic communities in the increasingly pervasive area of distance learning For although the field of communication has and continues to play an important role in the acceptance and rejection of the distance learning experience, the number of studies that appear in our communication journals is severely limited. The current field experiment responds to this void.

The third contribution that this distance learning study provides is a unique applied situation where two two-way broadcast systems were simultaneously utilized. Again, it is the exception to have a non-proprietary study of two competing distance learning network architectures. This investigation’s sample and this comparison will be of interest to educators, business executives, well as, communication scholars.

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Donald J. Jung, Department of Communication; Larry R. Irons, I.C. Technologies, L.L.C.

Although the research described in this article has been funded wholly or in part by the State of Missouri Public Service Commission and the State of Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, it has not been submitted to either agency’s peer and administrative review procedure and therefore may not necessarily reflect the views of either agency, and no official endorsement should be inferred.

[1] The two network architectures studied here were state of the art for the mid-1990s. Although numerous technological developments have occurred over the elapsed time period(e.g. widespread use of the world wide web and internet, streaming video, IP networking, etc.) the fundamental distinctions made here are still relevant. Classes using interactive video are still faced with the choice of how to most effectively maintain the awareness of students in one class location with students and teachers in other locations. The technologies change but the fundamental issues of telepresence remain the same.

Vividness
Positive	9	1	10
Negative	25	5	30
Interactive
Positive	12	4	16
Negative	23	7	30
Telepresence
Positive	39	16	47
Negative	8	2	10